Received: 2024-03-15  |  Accepted: 2024-06-10  |  Published: 2024-06-30

Title

Why do many educated individuals leave Zimbabwe? Economic realities and the draw of developed countries


Abstract

Zimbabwe grapples with a significant brain drain as many educated individuals seek better opportunities abroad. Given the decreasing number of highly educated individuals who remain in the country, their prospects of career advancement and wealth generation are expected to increase. This research aimed to investigate the impact of education on the employment status and income of individuals who stay in Zimbabwe. Cross-sectional data from the World Values Survey was used to characterize Zimbabwean respondents in relation to their employment status and income. To provide a comparative context, the results were juxtaposed with data from Australia and the United Kingdom (UK), popular destinations for Zimbabwean immigrants. Educated individuals in Zimbabwe face higher unemployment rates (22%) than those in Australia (2%) and the UK (3%). Additionally, educated Zimbabweans are more frequently self-employed (25%) than educated individuals in Australia (7%) and the UK (8%). Moreover, educated Zimbabweans are less likely to categorize themselves as high earners (10%) than Australians (38%) and UK residents (19%) with similar educational backgrounds. The significant disparities in employment rates, self-employment prevalence and perceived high-earning status between educated individuals in Zimbabwe and those in Australia and the UK underscore the challenges faced by educated individuals within Zimbabwean society. This research underscores the need for more job opportunities and the limited wealth creation prospects of highly educated individuals in Zimbabwe. If economic inclusivity is not fostered for the educated workforce, the brain drain will persist since opportunities will remain scarce, even for those who stay in the country. Targeted interventions to address structural issues and to promote a more inclusive economic environment in Zimbabwe are deemed necessary.


Keywords

education, employment status, income, brain drain, Zimbabwe, Australia, United Kingdom, comparative analysis


JEL classifications

O15


URI

http://jssidoi.org/ird/article/165


DOI


Pages

117-133


Funding


This is an open access issue and all published articles are licensed under a
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License

Authors

Steyn, Renier
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa https://www.unisa.ac.za
Articles by this author in: CrossRef |  Google Scholar

Ndofirepi, Takawira Munyaradzi
University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa https://www.unisa.ac.za
Articles by this author in: CrossRef |  Google Scholar

Journal title

Insights into Regional Development

Volume

6


Number

2


Issue date

June 2024


Issue DOI


ISSN

ISSN 2345-0282 (online)


Publisher

VšĮ Entrepreneurship and Sustainability Center, Vilnius, Lithuania

Cited

Google Scholar

Article views & downloads

HTML views: 942  |  PDF downloads: 229

References


Adeyemi, R. A., Joel, A., Ebenezer, J. T., and Attah, E. Y. 2018. The effect of brain drain on the economic development of developing countries: Evidence from selected African countries. Journal of Health and Social Issues, 7(2), 66-76.

Search via ReFindit


Ait Benhamou, Z., and Cassin, L. 2018. The effects of migration and remittances on development and capital in Caribbean Small Island Developing States. EconomiX Working Papers 2018-41. EconomiX.

Search via ReFindit


Beine, M., and Sekkat, K. 2013. Skilled migration and the transfer of institutional norms. IZA Journal of Migration, 2, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/2193-9039-2-9

Search via ReFindit


Bertoli, S., and Ruyssen, I. 2018. Networks and migrants' intended destination. Journal of Economic Geography, 18(4), 705-728. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lby012

Search via ReFindit


Bildirici, M., Sunal, S., Aykac Alp, E., and Orcan, M. 2005. Determinants of human capital theory, growth and brain drain: An econometric analysis for 77 countries. Applied Econometrics and International Development, 5, 2.

Search via ReFindit


Blacklock, C., Ward, A. M., Heneghan, C., and Thompson, M. 2014. Exploring the migration decisions of health workers and trainees from Africa: A meta-ethnographic synthesis. Social Science and Medicine, 100, 99-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2013.10.032

Search via ReFindit


Blumenstock, J. E., Chi, G., and Tan, X. 2023. Migration and the value of social networks. Review of Economic Studies, 00: 1-32. https://doi.org/10.1093/restud/rdad113

Search via ReFindit


Böhm, M. J., von Gaudecker, H. M., and Schran, F. 2024. Occupation growth, skill prices, and wage inequality. Journal of Labor Economics, 42(1), 201-243. https://doi.org/10.1086/722084

Search via ReFindit


Bosworth, G. 2006. Counterurbanisation and job creation: entrepreneurial in-migration and rural economic development. Centre for Rural Economy's discussion paper series No. 4: Centre for Rural Economy. https://eprints.ncl.ac.uk/file_store/production/148390/BF6195C1-7FBB-4B31-9483-1F016C48EE8C.pdf

Search via ReFindit


Bredtmann, J., Martínez Flores, F., and Otten, S. 2019. Remittances and the brain drain: Evidence from microdata for sub-Saharan Africa. The Journal of Development Studies, 55(7), 1455-1476. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2018.1443208

Search via ReFindit


Brissett, N. O. 2023. 'I left because…': Caribbean high-skilled emigrants' reasons to migrate to the US. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 53(2), 235-252. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2021.1887723

Search via ReFindit


Brock, G. 2016. Debating brain drain: An overview. Moral Philosophy and Politics, 3(1), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1515/mopp-2015-0020

Search via ReFindit


Chand, M. 2019. Brain drain, brain circulation, and the African diaspora in the United States. Journal of African Business, 20(1), 6-19. https://doi.org/10.1080/15228916.2018.1440461

Search via ReFindit


Cohen, J. 1988. Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Search via ReFindit


Commander, S., Kangasniemi, M., and Winters, L. A. 2004. The brain drain: A review of theory and facts. Brussels Economic Review, 47(1), 29-44.

Search via ReFindit


Crisford, C. 2022. African diaspora experience of transnationalism, social networks and identity: The case of Zimbabwean social workers in the United Kingdom. Journal of African Studies and Development, 14(2): 27-34. https://doi.org/10.5897/JASD2021.0618

Search via ReFindit


Danzer, A. M., and Ulku, H. 2011. Integration, social networks and economic success of immigrants: A case study of the Turkish community in Berlin. Kyklos, 64(3), 342-365. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.2011.00510.x

Search via ReFindit


Darkwa, S. K. (2018). From brain-drain to brain-gain: The African-diaspora community and development in Africa. Africology: The Journal of Pan African Studies, 12(5): 14-35.

Search via ReFindit


Delgado Wise, R. 2018. On the theory and practice of migration and development: A Southern perspective. Journal of Intercultural Studies, 39(2), 163-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/07256868.2018.1446669

Search via ReFindit


Docquier, F., and Machado, J. 2017. Income disparities, population and migration flows over the twenty first century. Italian Economic Journal, 3, 125-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40797-017-0054-2

Search via ReFindit


Docquier, F., and Rapoport, H. 2012. Globalization, brain drain, and development. Journal of Economic Literature, 50(3), 681-730. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.50.3.681

Search via ReFindit


Dzinamarira, T., and Musuka, G. 2021. Brain drain: An ever-present significant challenge to the Zimbabwean public health sector. Public Health in Practice, 2, 100086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhip.2021.100086

Search via ReFindit


Ewers, M. C., Khattab, N., Babar, Z., and Madeeha, M. 2022. Skilled migration to emerging economies: The global competition for talent beyond the West. Globalizations, 19(2), 268-284. https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2021.1882816

Search via ReFindit


Facchini, G., Mayda, A. M., and Mendola, M. 2013. South-South migration and the labour market: Evidence from South Africa. Institute for the Study of Labor's discussion paper No. 7362: Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA). https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2263598

Search via ReFindit


Faggian, A., Corcoran, J., and Partridge, M. 2015. Interregional migration analysis. In Handbook of research methods and applications in economic geography (pp. 468-490). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857932679.00030

Search via ReFindit


Faist, T. 2016. Cross-border migration and social inequalities. Annual review of Sociology, 42, 323-346. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-081715-074302

Search via ReFindit


Goh, Y. S., and Lopez, V. 2016. Job satisfaction, work environment and intention to leave among migrant nurses working in a publicly funded tertiary hospital. Journal of Nursing Management, 24(7), 893-901. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.12395

Search via ReFindit


Gurr, T. R. 1970. Why men rebel. Princeton University Press.

Search via ReFindit


Gwaradzimba, E., and Shumba, A. 2010. The nature, extent and impact of the brain drain in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Acta Academica, 42(1), 209-241.

Search via ReFindit


Ha, W., Yi, J., and Zhang, J. 2016. Brain drain, brain gain, and economic growth in China. China Economic Review, 38: 322-337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chieco.2015.02.005

Search via ReFindit


Hasselbalch, J. A. 2019. Framing brain drain: Between solidarity and skills in European labor mobility. Review of International Political Economy, 26(6), 1333-1360. https://doi.org/10.1080/09692290.2019.1626755

Search via ReFindit


Haug, S. 2008. Migration networks and migration decision-making. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(4), 585-605. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691830801961605

Search via ReFindit


Inglehart, R., Haerpfer, C., Moreno, A., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano, J., Lagos, M., Norris, P., Ponarin, E., and Puranen, B. (Eds.). 2014. World Values Survey: Round Six - Country-Pooled Datafile Version. JD Systems Institute. https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSDocumentationWV6.jsp

Search via ReFindit


Kafle, K., Benfica, R., and Winters, P. 2020. Does relative deprivation induce migration? Evidence from sub‐Saharan Africa. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 102(3), 999-1019. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajae.12007

Search via ReFindit


Kanonge, T. T., and Bussin, M. H. 2022. Pre-conditions for employee motivation to curb Zimbabwe's academic brain drain. SA Journal of Human Resource Management, 20, 1819. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v20i0.1819

Search via ReFindit


Kuhnt, J. 2019. Literature review: Drivers of migration. Why do people leave their homes? Is there an easy answer? A structured overview of migratory determinants. German Institute of Development and Sustainability's discussion paper No. 9/2019: German Institute of Development and Sustainability (IDOS).

Search via ReFindit


Lee, E. S. 1966. A theory of migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. https://doi.org/10.2307/2060063

Search via ReFindit


Mlambo, V. H., and Adetiba, T. C. 2019. Brain drain and South Africa's socio-economic development: The waves and its effects. Journal of Public Affairs, 19(4), e1942. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.1942

Search via ReFindit


Mlambo, V. H., Madukhu, H. D., and Mubecua, M. A. 2019. Between a rock and a hard place: Fight brain drain or enjoy remittances: The case of sub-Saharan Africa. African Journal of Development Studies, 9(1), 293-313. https://doi.org/10.31920/2075-6534/2019/9n1a14

Search via ReFindit


Montessori, M. 1912. The Montessori method. Schocken Books.

Search via ReFindit


Mpofu, Q., and Nemashakwe, P. 2023. The The Adequacy of Human Capital for the Fourth Industrial Revolution Era in the Mining Industry in Zimbabwe. International Journal of Social Science Research and Review, 6(8), 67-78. https://doi.org/10.47814/ijssrr.v6i8.1419

Search via ReFindit


Murphy, M., and Pacher, C. 2022. Bridging the gap: Brain drain to brain circulation: Researching successful strategies to support effective change. Procedia Computer Science, 200, 556-565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2022.01.253

Search via ReFindit


Muzondidya, J. 2011. The Zimbabwean diaspora: Opportunities and challenges for engagement in Zimbabwe's political development and economic transformation. Zimbabwe in transition: A view from within, 112-158.

Search via ReFindit


Nair, M., and Webster, P. 2013. Health professionals' migration in emerging market economies: Patterns, causes and possible solutions. Journal of Public Health, 35(1), 157-163. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fds087

Search via ReFindit


Nawyn, S. J. 2016. Migration in the global south: Exploring new theoretical territory. International Journal of Sociology, 46(2), 81-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207659.2016.1163991

Search via ReFindit


Nyanga, T., Mpala, C., and Chifamba, E. 2012. Brain drain: Implications for sustainable development in Zimbabwe. Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, 14(8), 141-153.

Search via ReFindit


Okafor, C., and Chimereze, C. 2020. Brain drain among Nigerian nurses: Implications to the migrating nurse and the home country. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation, 7(1), 15-21.

Search via ReFindit


Parkins, N. C. 2010. Push and pull factors of migration. American Review of Political Economy, 8(2), 6, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.38024/arpe.119

Search via ReFindit


Prieto Rosas, V., and López Gay, A. 2015. Push and pull factors of Latin American migration. Demographic Analysis of Latin American Immigrants in Spain: From Boom to Bust, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-12361-5_1

Search via ReFindit


Psacharopoulos, G., and Patrinos, H. A. 2004. Human capital and rates of return. In International handbook on the economics of education (pp. 1-57). Cheltenham. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781845421694.00006

Search via ReFindit


Rauch, F., and Maurer, S. 2018. Of mice and merchants: Trade and growth in the Iron Age. Department of Economics' working papers No. 854: University of Oxford.

Search via ReFindit


Schaeffer, P. 2005. Human capital, migration strategy, and brain drain. Journal of International Trade and Economic Development, 14(3): 319-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638190500203344

Search via ReFindit


Scott, A. 1970. The brain drain: Is a human capital approach justified? In Education, income, and human capital (pp. 241-293). NBER.

Search via ReFindit


Shumba, A., and Mawere, D. 2012. The causes and impact of the brain drain in institutions of higher learning in Zimbabwe. International Migration, 50(4), 107-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2012.00749.x

Search via ReFindit


Stark, O., and Taylor, J. E. 2019. Relative deprivation and migration: Theory, evidence, and policy implications. In Determinants of emigration from Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean (pp. 121-144). Routledge.

Search via ReFindit


Stolz, Y., and Baten, J. 2012. Brain drain in the age of mass migration: Does relative inequality explain migrant selectivity? Explorations in Economic History, 49(2): 205-220. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeh.2012.01.001

Search via ReFindit


Syed, N. A., Khimani, F., Andrades, M., Ali, S. K., and Paul, R. 2008. Reasons for migration among medical students from Karachi. Medical Education, 42(1), 61-68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2923.2007.02904.x

Search via ReFindit


Thompson, M., and Walton-Roberts, M. 2019. International nurse migration from India and the Philippines: The challenge of meeting the sustainable development goals in training, orderly migration and healthcare worker retention. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 45(14), 2583-2599. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2018.1456748

Search via ReFindit


Urbański, M. 2022. Comparing push and pull factors affecting migration. Economies, 10(1): 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies10010021

Search via ReFindit


Van der Sluis, J., van Praag, M., and Vijverberg, W. 2005. Entrepreneurship selection and performance: A meta-analysis of the impact of education in developing economies. The World Bank Economic Review, 19(2): 225-261. https://doi.org/10.1093/wber/lhi013

Search via ReFindit


Wong, L. L., and Guo, S. 2023. Brain drain, brain gain and brain circulation: Emerging trends and patterns of Chinese transnational talent mobility. Journal of Chinese Overseas, 19(1), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1163/17932548-12341477

Search via ReFindit


World Bank. 2002. Constructing knowledge societies: New challenges for tertiary education. World Bank.

Search via ReFindit


World Population Review. 2024. Mean age. https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/median-age

Search via ReFindit